NEN Explain: What is Operant Conditioning?

In early years and educational settings, it’s important to understand how children learn and develop new behaviours, skills and knowledge. One of the key psychological theories that helps explain this process is Operant Conditioning. This theory comes from the wider school of thought known as Behaviourism, which focuses on how behaviour is learned from the environment.

Behaviourism suggests that people, including children, learn through their interactions with the world around them. Within this area, there are two main ideas: Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning. While Classical Conditioning focuses on learning through association (like Pavlov’s famous experiment with dogs), Operant Conditioning looks at learning through consequences – that is, how rewards and punishments shape behaviour.

Operant Conditioning was developed by the psychologist B.F. Skinner. Skinner believed that behaviour could be changed or “conditioned” by using a system of rewards and punishments. This process doesn’t just happen automatically; instead, it involves conscious choices and adaptations that individuals make in response to what happens around them. Skinner suggested that our actions are influenced by what we expect to happen afterwards. For example, if a behaviour leads to something pleasant, we’re more likely to repeat it. If it leads to something unpleasant, we’re less likely to do it again.

How Operant Conditioning Works

In simple terms, Operant Conditioning is all about learning from consequences. Skinner identified two main ways that consequences can influence behaviour: through reinforcement and punishment.

Reinforcement means encouraging or increasing a behaviour, while punishment means discouraging or reducing a behaviour. Each of these can be either positive or negative, depending on whether something is added or taken away.

So, there are four main parts to Operant Conditioning:

1. Positive Reinforcement
2. Negative Reinforcement
3. Positive Punishment
4. Negative Punishment

Positive Reinforcement: Adding Something Good

Positive reinforcement happens when we add something pleasant or rewarding after a desired behaviour to encourage that behaviour to happen again. You can think of this as “praise by addition.”

For example, in an early years setting, a practitioner might praise a child who helps tidy up the classroom by saying, “Well done for helping! You’re such a great helper.” The praise acts as a reward, and the child learns that helping out brings positive attention and approval. Over time, the child is likely to repeat that behaviour because it makes them feel good.

Positive reinforcement can take different forms:

• Natural reinforcement happens directly as a result of the behaviour itself. For example, if a child practices stacking blocks carefully and they manage to build a tall tower, the sense of achievement is naturally rewarding. Nobody needs to give an external reward – the satisfaction of success is enough.
• Social reinforcement involves the positive reaction of another person. This might be a teacher giving a smile, a high-five, or saying, “I’m proud of you.” Young children especially thrive on this kind of reinforcement because it helps them feel secure, valued and connected to others.
• Token reinforcement involves giving a child something tangible as a reward. In an early years or school setting, this could be a sticker, a stamp, or points on a reward chart. The child understands that these tokens have value and can lead to further rewards, like extra playtime or choosing a story. However, practitioners must use these carefully – if children come to expect a token every time, the behaviour might stop once the rewards are removed.

Example in practice:

An Early Years Practitioner introduces a “kindness tree” in the classroom. Every time a child shows kindness, such as sharing toys or comforting a friend, they get to add a paper leaf with their name on it to the tree. The tree fills up with leaves, showing the whole group how positive behaviour is noticed and celebrated. This approach reinforces kindness through social and token rewards, helping to build a caring classroom culture.

Negative Reinforcement: Taking Away Something Unpleasant

Negative reinforcement can sound confusing at first, because the word “negative” doesn’t mean “bad.” Instead, it refers to removing something unpleasant to encourage a positive behaviour. You can think of this as “praise by subtraction.”

For example, imagine a child who finds it stressful when the classroom is noisy. If they learn that by asking politely for quiet, they can make the noise stop, they are more likely to repeat this polite request in the future. In this case, the unpleasant situation (the noise) is removed when they behave appropriately.

In another example, a teacher might stop reminding a child about a task once they start completing it independently. The removal of constant reminders acts as a reward because it gives the child a sense of autonomy and trust.

Example in practice:

In a Year 1 class, children who finish their writing tasks on time are excused from staying in during part of break to complete unfinished work. The removal of this negative consequence (missing playtime) encourages them to work efficiently next time.

Positive Punishment: Adding Something Unpleasant

Positive punishment happens when something unwanted is added as a result of undesirable behaviour. You can think of this as “punishment by addition.”

For example, if a child throws sand at another child, a practitioner might respond by giving them a verbal warning and removing them from the sand area for a short period. The additional consequence (the warning and time-out) makes it less likely that the child will repeat the behaviour.

However, in early years and education, it’s important to approach punishment carefully. The goal should never be to shame or frighten a child, but to help them learn that actions have consequences. Practitioners should always explain why the behaviour was not acceptable and guide the child toward making a better choice next time.

Example in practice:

An Early Years Practitioner introduces a “calm corner” where children can go when they need time to calm down after breaking a rule, such as shouting during storytime. The calm corner isn’t a place of exclusion or fear; it’s a supportive space where the child learns to regulate their emotions and reflect on their actions.

Negative Punishment – Taking Away Something Pleasant

Negative punishment means removing something enjoyable to discourage unwanted behaviour. This can be thought of as “punishment by subtraction.”

For example, if a child refuses to share a toy after being reminded several times, the practitioner might temporarily take the toy away. Losing access to the toy teaches the child that not sharing leads to an unwanted outcome.

Example in practice:

In a reception classroom, children who repeatedly ignore tidy-up time might lose a few minutes of their free play session. The removal of a positive experience helps them understand that cooperation is valued.

Again, it’s important that negative punishment is used fairly and explained clearly. The goal is to teach, not to control. Practitioners should always help children understand what behaviour is expected and offer opportunities to try again.

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The Importance of Consistency

Skinner emphasised that for Operant Conditioning to work effectively, consistency is key. If rewards and punishments are applied regularly and fairly, children can easily link their behaviour to the consequences. This helps them make conscious decisions about how to act.

For example, if every time a child says “please”, they receive praise, they quickly learn that polite behaviour leads to a positive response. But if sometimes they are praised and sometimes ignored, the connection becomes weaker, and the behaviour might not be repeated.

Consistency also applies to consequences for negative behaviour. If one day a child’s rough play is ignored, but the next day it results in a time-out, the child becomes confused about expectations. This inconsistency can lead to frustration and unpredictable behaviour.

Example in practice:

In an early years setting, the whole staff team agrees on shared behaviour expectations and language. When a child pushes in line, every adult uses the same phrase: “We take turns. Please go to the end of the line.” This consistent approach helps children understand boundaries and learn appropriate social behaviour.

Maintaining Learned Behaviours

Another important part of Skinner’s theory is the idea that if a behaviour is no longer reinforced, it might eventually fade away. This process is called extinction. For example, if a teacher stops praising children for good listening, they might stop listening as attentively over time.

To avoid this, practitioners can use intermittent reinforcement, where the desired behaviour is rewarded occasionally rather than every single time. This keeps the motivation strong and makes the behaviour more stable in the long term.

Example in practice:

A child who used to get a sticker every time they helped a friend might now only get one occasionally, but they still continue to be kind because they’ve learned the intrinsic value of kindness and enjoy the positive social atmosphere it creates.

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Why Operant Conditioning Matters in Education and Early Years

Operant Conditioning plays an essential role in understanding how children learn and develop positive behaviours, self-regulation skills, and social understanding. In early years and education, practitioners constantly work to shape and guide children’s behaviour in ways that support their learning, well-being, and emotional security. Understanding how rewards and consequences influence behaviour helps practitioners create environments that are calm, consistent, and supportive, key foundations of effective early years practice.

Children in early years settings are still learning how to express their feelings, share, take turns, and follow routines. They are developing essential self-regulation skills, which form part of the Personal, Social and Emotional Development (PSED) area within the EYFS and Birth to Five Matters. Operant Conditioning provides a framework for helping children learn these skills in a positive, structured way. When practitioners apply the principles of reinforcement and consequence thoughtfully, they help children make connections between their actions and the outcomes of those actions. Over time, this helps children internalise expectations and learn to manage their own behaviour independently.

Supporting Positive Relationships and Behaviour

In the EYFS, practitioners are expected to “set clear boundaries and consistently support children to understand expectations” (EYFS, 2024). Operant Conditioning provides the psychological foundation for doing this effectively. For example, when practitioners use positive reinforcement, such as verbal praise, smiles, or gentle encouragement, they are helping children understand what behaviours are valued and appreciated. This aligns with the Birth to Five Matters guidance, which emphasises that “children need to know what is expected of them and to be shown, by example, how to behave towards others.”

By using consistent reinforcement, practitioners build secure and trusting relationships with children. This sense of security allows children to feel confident exploring their environment and engaging in learning experiences. When children feel emotionally safe and valued, they are more willing to try new things, make mistakes, and learn from them, which are essential elements of early learning and development.

For instance, when a practitioner praises a child for using kind words, “That was very kind of you to help your friend pick up the blocks!”, the child learns that kindness is recognised and valued. Over time, they are more likely to repeat that behaviour, not just for the external reward of praise but because it becomes part of their internal moral understanding. This shows how Operant Conditioning can support the EYFS principle of positive relationships, helping children develop empathy, cooperation, and respect for others.

Encouraging Engagement and Motivation in Learning

Operant Conditioning also links closely with how children are motivated to learn. According to Skinner’s theory, behaviour that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, meaning that children who receive positive reinforcement for effort, curiosity, and persistence are more likely to develop a love of learning.

Within the EYFS, the Characteristics of Effective Learning highlight three key elements:

• Playing and exploring
• Active learning
• Creating and thinking critically

Operant Conditioning supports all three. For example, active learning involves children showing high levels of energy and motivation. When practitioners positively reinforce a child’s effort rather than just the outcome, such as saying, “I can see you’re really concentrating on your tower, keep going!”, they encourage persistence and resilience. This approach is consistent with Birth to Five Matters, which advises practitioners to “value and praise children’s efforts and curiosity.”

In practical terms, this might look like:

• Praising a child for trying again after something doesn’t work the first time, reinforcing persistence.
• Acknowledging cooperative play (“You’re sharing the train track really nicely!”), reinforcing teamwork.
• Giving children tokens or stickers for showing patience helps them link positive social behaviour with reward and approval.

These actions help children feel proud of their achievements and encourage them to engage more deeply in their learning experiences.

Promoting Self-Regulation and Emotional Development

Both the EYFS and Birth to Five Matters emphasise the importance of supporting children’s self-regulation, their ability to manage feelings, impulses, and actions. Operant Conditioning offers valuable strategies for developing this skill. By using consistent rewards and consequences, practitioners help children understand the cause-and-effect relationships between behaviour and outcome.

For instance, when a child becomes upset because they can’t have a turn with a toy, a practitioner might guide them to use calming strategies and then reward them with praise when they manage to wait patiently. This positive reinforcement helps the child learn that regulating their emotions leads to positive social experiences.

In contrast, if a child repeatedly grabs toys from others, a consistent consequence (such as losing a turn) teaches them that certain actions have limits. This aligns with the EYFS PSED goal of “understanding behavioural expectations and beginning to regulate their behaviour accordingly.” Over time, these consistent experiences help children internalise rules and begin to regulate their actions without needing constant adult intervention.

Consistency, Fairness and Boundaries

One of the key strengths of Operant Conditioning in early years practice is its focus on consistency. The EYFS framework clearly states that children “benefit from clear, consistent routines and boundaries.” When practitioners respond to behaviour in predictable ways, children feel safe and know what to expect. This security helps them develop trust and confidence in adults, which is a vital foundation for emotional well-being and learning.

In contrast, inconsistency, such as sometimes ignoring negative behaviour and other times reacting strongly, can lead to confusion and anxiety. Children may test boundaries more frequently or struggle to understand what is expected. Using Operant Conditioning principles ensures that rewards and consequences are applied fairly, predictably, and in a way that supports children’s understanding rather than simply controlling their actions.

For example, if a child is consistently praised for tidying up after playtime, they will begin to see tidying as part of the routine and feel a sense of responsibility. If, however, tidying is only noticed occasionally, the motivation to do so may fade. The EYFS promotes this idea through the guiding principle that “children learn best when adults respond to them consistently and build positive relationships.”

Building Intrinsic Motivation Over Time

While Operant Conditioning often begins with external rewards such as praise, stickers, or tokens, the ultimate goal in early education is to help children develop intrinsic motivation, a desire to behave well and learn for its own sake. This progression mirrors Skinner’s idea of gradually reducing external reinforcement once the behaviour becomes established.

In the context of early years practice, this might look like moving from giving a sticker for every act of kindness to occasionally praising children for showing empathy, and then helping them recognise how kindness makes them and others feel good. By helping children reflect on the positive emotions that come from good behaviour, practitioners encourage self-awareness and intrinsic motivation.

This approach connects strongly with Birth to Five Matters, which encourages practitioners to “support children to recognise and talk about their feelings and actions, and their effects on others.” Through this reflective process, children begin to behave positively not just for rewards, but because they understand and value the behaviour itself.

Creating Inclusive and Positive Learning Environments

Finally, Operant Conditioning helps practitioners build inclusive, respectful, and emotionally safe learning environments, key priorities in both EYFS and Birth to Five Matters. When practitioners use reinforcement to celebrate small successes and guide behaviour positively, all children, including those with additional needs or behavioural challenges, can experience success.

For example, a child with speech delay might be praised for using gestures or visual aids to communicate rather than becoming frustrated. This approach acknowledges effort and promotes confidence, aligning with the EYFS commitment to inclusion and equal opportunities.

Moreover, when adults model positive behaviour and reinforce cooperation, patience, and empathy, children learn these social and emotional skills by example. Over time, the setting develops a culture of respect and care, where children feel empowered to make good choices and take responsibility for their actions.

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Criticisms of Operant Conditioning

While Operant Conditioning has had a huge influence on education and early years practice, it is not without criticism. Many psychologists, educators, and theorists argue that Skinner’s ideas do not fully explain how or why people learn. Although the approach can be very effective for shaping specific behaviours, it has limits when applied to the complex and emotional world of human learning and development, especially with young children.

Too Much Focus on External Behaviour

One of the main criticisms of Operant Conditioning is that it focuses almost entirely on observable behaviour, rather than the thoughts, feelings, and motivations that lie behind it. Skinner believed that what happens inside the mind, such as thinking, understanding, or emotional reflection, could not be directly observed and was therefore less important for studying learning.

However, many educational theorists, such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, have shown that children’s learning is a deeply internal and social process. They argued that understanding how children think, reason, and make sense of the world is just as important as observing how they behave.

In early years settings, this means that focusing only on external rewards and punishments may encourage children to behave well for the sake of a sticker or praise, rather than because they truly understand why the behaviour matters. For example, a child might learn to say “sorry” to get a smile from the practitioner, without really feeling empathy or understanding that their actions hurt someone else. This can limit the development of deeper emotional understanding, which is a key goal in Personal, Social and Emotional Development (PSED) within the EYFS and Birth to Five Matters.

In practice, this suggests that while rewards and consequences are useful tools, they should always be combined with opportunities for children to reflect on their behaviour. Practitioners should help children talk about their feelings, think about others’ perspectives, and explore why certain actions are kind or unkind.

Risk of Creating Over-Reliance on Rewards

Another common criticism is that Operant Conditioning can lead to over-reliance on external rewards. If children come to expect a sticker, treat, or praise every time they behave well, they may stop showing positive behaviour once the rewards are removed. This can be especially problematic in early years settings, where the goal is to develop children’s intrinsic motivation, their internal desire to do the right thing because it feels good or because they care about others.

For example, a child who tidies up only to receive a sticker may lose interest in helping if stickers are no longer given. On the other hand, if practitioners take time to help the child understand how tidying makes the classroom pleasant and helps everyone work together, they begin to value the behaviour itself.

Both the EYFS and Birth to Five Matters encourage practitioners to move beyond surface-level compliance and focus on nurturing children’s self-regulation and independence. While token systems and praise can be helpful starting points, they should be used thoughtfully and gradually reduced as children begin to internalise positive values.

A balanced approach might involve using positive reinforcement to establish behaviour patterns, then shifting toward social and natural reinforcement (such as positive peer interactions or personal satisfaction). This helps children move from acting to please adults to acting because they understand and believe in the value of their actions.

Ignores Individual Differences and Emotional Needs

A further criticism is that Operant Conditioning can sometimes overlook individual differences between children. Skinner’s theory treats behaviour as something that can be universally shaped through reinforcement and punishment. However, every child is unique, with different temperaments, backgrounds, needs, and emotional experiences.

For instance, a child who is shy or anxious might not respond well to public praise, finding it overwhelming rather than motivating. Another child might come from a background where rewards or punishments at home are inconsistent, making it harder for them to connect cause and effect. In such cases, a “one-size-fits-all” approach to reinforcement may not be effective.

The EYFS and Birth to Five Matters both highlight the importance of individualised approaches. Practitioners are encouraged to get to know each child’s personality, home environment, and emotional needs, and to adapt strategies accordingly. This means that while the principles of Operant Conditioning can guide practice, they should never be applied rigidly. Practitioners should use empathy and professional judgement to decide what type of reinforcement will best support each child’s emotional and developmental needs.

For example, instead of giving the same sticker to every child who completes a task, a practitioner might offer quiet verbal praise to a reserved child, while offering an enthusiastic high-five to a more outgoing one. Both are examples of positive reinforcement, but they are tailored to the individual child’s comfort and personality.

Short-Term Change vs. Long-Term Learning

Critics also argue that Operant Conditioning is often effective in changing behaviour in the short term, but may not always lead to long-term learning or genuine understanding. Rewards and punishments can quickly alter what a child does, but they don’t always teach the reasoning, problem-solving, or emotional skills needed for lasting behavioural change.

For instance, a child who stops shouting because they are told they will lose playtime might not understand how shouting affects others. They might stop the behaviour to avoid punishment, but resume it when no adult is watching. In contrast, if the practitioner helps the child talk about their feelings and reflect on better ways to express frustration, the child learns important emotional regulation skills that last beyond that single situation.

This criticism highlights the importance of combining behaviourist strategies with constructivist and social learning approaches, such as those proposed by Vygotsky and Bandura, which focus on understanding, modelling, and reflection. In practice, this means using Operant Conditioning as one tool among many, helpful for setting boundaries and promoting safety, but always alongside approaches that encourage thinking, empathy, and communication.

Ethical Considerations

Finally, some critics raise ethical concerns about using rewards and punishments to control behaviour, particularly with young children who may not fully understand why they are being rewarded or punished. If used insensitively, reinforcement systems can create feelings of shame, exclusion, or inequality. For example, if a classroom reward chart is visible to all children and only certain children regularly receive stickers, others may feel left out or labelled as “naughty.”

The Birth to Five Matters guidance warns against approaches that “publicly compare children” or “label them according to behaviour,” as this can damage self-esteem and relationships. Instead, it encourages practitioners to focus on positive guidance, helping children understand expectations and repair relationships when things go wrong.

This criticism doesn’t mean Operant Conditioning should be avoided altogether, but rather that it must be applied ethically and sensitively. Practitioners should focus on private, constructive feedback, celebrate all children’s efforts, and ensure that rewards and consequences are fair, respectful, and inclusive.

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Reference list

Birth to Five Matters,. 2021. Non-statutory Guidance for the Early Years Foundation Stage. Early Education. Available at: https://www.birthto5matters.org.uk.

Department for Education,. 2024. Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage: Setting the Standards for Learning, Development and Care for Children from Birth to Five. London: Department for Education. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/early-years-foundation-stage-framework–2.